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This chapter characterizes the prime mover technologies typically used in CHP applications.

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The characterizations include reciprocating engines, microturbines, gas turbines, steam turbines, and fuel cells. Historically the primary industrial technologies are gas turbines, reciprocating engines and steam turbines. Conventional large industrial systems are relatively widely deployed and utilize readily available thermal technologies. There are viable CHP opportunities in the commercial sector, but technology and application matching in the commercial sector is more difficult:.

Unlike the majority of industrial projects that can absorb the entire thermal output of a CHP system onsite, many commercial sites have either an inadequate thermal load or a highly seasonal load such as space heating. The best overall efficiency and economics come from a steady thermal load. These loads are concentrated in relatively few types of commercial applications.

Reciprocating internal combustion engines are a widespread and well-known technology.

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Worldwide production for reciprocating internal combustion engines is over million units per year. The long history of technical development and high production levels have contributed to making reciprocating engines a rugged, reliable, and economic choice as a prime mover for CHP applications.

Reciprocating engine technology has improved dramatically over the past three decades, driven by economic and environmental pressures for power density improvements more output per unit of engine displacementincreased fuel efficiency and reduced emissions.

Computer systems have greatly advanced reciprocating engine design and control, accelerating advanced engine designs and making possible more precise control and diagnostic monitoring of the engine process.

There are two primary reciprocating engine designs relevant to stationary power generation applications — the spark ignition Otto-cycle engine and the compression ignition Diesel-cycle engine. The essential mechanical components of the Otto-cycle and Diesel-cycle are the same.

The primary difference between the Otto and Diesel cycles is the method of igniting the fuel. Spark ignition engines Otto-cycle use a spark plug to ignite a pre-mixed air fuel mixture introduced into the cylinder.

on hedging spark spread options in electricity markets

Compression ignition engines Diesel-cycle compress the air introduced into the cylinder to a high pressure, raising its temperature to the auto-ignition temperature of the fuel which is injected at high pressure.

There are 2-cycle engines in stationary power applications, particularly in standby service. However, most spark ignition and the diesel engines relevant to stationary power generation applications complete a power cycle in four strokes of the piston within the cylinder. The simplest natural gas engines operate with natural aspiration of air and fuel into the cylinder via a carburetor or other mixer by the suction of the intake stroke.

High performance natural gas engines are turbocharged to force more air into the cylinders. Natural gas spark ignition engines operate at modest compression ratios compared with diesel engines in the range of 9: Modest compression is required to prevent auto-ignition of the fuel and engine knock, which can cause serious engine damage. Using high energy ignition technology, very lean fuel-air mixtures can be burned in natural gas engines, lowering peak temperatures within the cylinders and resulting in reduced NO x emissions.

The lean burn approach in reciprocating engines is analogous to dry low-NO x combustors in gas turbines. Natural gas spark ignition engine efficiencies are typically lower than diesel engines because of their lower compression ratios. However, large, high performance lean burn engine efficiencies approach those of diesel engines of the same size. Dual fuel engines are predominantly fueled by natural gas with a small percentage of diesel oil added.

There are two main configurations for introducing the gaseous fuel in a dual fuel engine. These engines can be purpose built or conversions of diesel engines. Dual fuel engines provide a multi-use functionality. The dual function adds benefit in applications that have specific emergency generator requirements such as in hospitals or in public buildings.

New dual-fuel engines are offered in oil and gas production markets to reduce operating costs. Dual-fuel retrofits of existing diesel engines are also offered as a means to reduce both operating costs and emissions for extending the hours of use for limited duty engines such as emergency and peaking applications.

Dual fuel is not widely used for CHP applications. Table summarizes performance characteristics for typical commercially available natural gas spark ignition engine CHP systems over a kW to 9 MW size range. This size range covers the majority of the market applications for engine-driven CHP. Available thermal energy was taken directly from vendor specifications or, if not provided, calculated from published engine data on engine exhaust temperatures and engine jacket and lube system coolant how to make money on priston tale private server. CHP thermal recovery estimates buy venosan compression stockings australia based on producing hot water for process or space heating needs.

Emissions of criteria pollutantss are the primary environmental concern with reciprocating engines. The primary pollutants are oxides of nitrogen NO xcarbon monoxide COand volatile organic compounds VOCs — unburned, non-methane hydrocarbons with reciprocating engines operating on natural gas. Emissions of sulfur compounds, primarily SO 2, are related to the sulfur content of the fuel.

Engines operating on natural gas or distillate oil, which has been desulfurized in the refinery, emit insignificant levels of SO x. In general, SO x emissions are an issue only in large, slow speed diesels firing heavy oils. Particulate matter PM can be an important pollutant for engines using liquid fuels. Ash and metallic additives in the fuel contribute to PM in the exhaust. Particulate emissions from 4-stroke lean burn natural gas engines are 4, times lower than for an uncontrolled diesel engine.

NO x emissions are usually the primary concern with natural gas engines and are a mixture of mostly NO and NO 2 in variable composition. Among natural gas engine options, lean burn natural gas engines produce the lowest NO x emissions directly from the engine.

There are several types of catalytic exhaust gas treatment processes that are applicable to various types of reciprocating engines — three-way catalyst, selective catalytic reduction, and oxidation catalysts.

The three-way on hedging spark spread options in electricity markets process TWC is the basic automotive catalytic converter process that reduces concentrations of all three criteria pollutants.

The Innocent drinks stock market is also called non-selective Catalytic Reduction NSCR. TWCs are only effective in rich-burning engines. Lean burn engines equipped with selective catalytic reduction SCR technology selectively reduces NO x to N 2 in the presence of a reducing agent.

Higher reductions are possible with the use of more catalyst or more reducing agent, or both. The two agents used commercially are ammonia NH 3 in anhydrous liquid form or aqueous solution and aqueous urea. Urea decomposes in the hot exhaust gas and SCR reactor, releasing ammonia. SCR systems add a significant cost burden to the installation cost and maintenance cost of an engine system, and can severely impact the economic feasibility of smaller engine projects.

Oxidation catalysts generally are precious metal compounds that learn option how to start stock market trading basics oxidation of CO and hydrocarbons to CO 2 and H 2 O in the presence of excess O2.

Oxidation catalysts are now widely used with all types of engines, including diesel engines. They are being used increasingly with lean burn gas engines to on hedging spark spread options in electricity markets their relatively high CO and hydrocarbon emissions.

Reciprocating engines are well suited to a variety of distributed generation applications, and are used throughout industrial, commercial, and institutional facilities for power generation and CHP. Reciprocating engines start quickly, follow load buy or sell sirius xm stock, have good part load efficiencies, and generally have high reliabilities.

In many cases, having multiple reciprocating engine units further increases overall plant capacity and availability. Reciprocating engines have higher electrical efficiencies than gas turbines of comparable size, and thus lower fuel-related operating costs.

In addition, the upfront costs of reciprocating engine gensets are generally lower than gas turbine gensets in sizes below 20 MW. Reciprocating engine maintenance costs are generally higher than comparable gas turbines, but the maintenance can often be handled by in-house staff or provided by local service organizations.

on hedging spark spread options in electricity markets

Steam can be produced from the exhaust heat if forex charts mac free maximum pressure of psigbut if no hot water is needed, the amount of heat recovered from the engine is reduced and total CHP system efficiency drops accordingly.

The most common method of recovering engine heat is the closed-loop cooling system as shown in Figure These systems are designed to cool the engine by forced circulation of a coolant through engine passages and an external heat exchanger. An excess heat exchanger transfers engine heat to a cooling tower or a radiator when there is excess heat generated. Ebullient cooling systems cool the engine by natural circulation of a boiling coolant through the engine. This type of cooling system is typically used in conjunction with exhaust heat recovery for production of low-pressure steam.

The uniform temperature throughout the coolant circuit extends engine life and contributes to improved combustion efficiencies.

Exhaust heat recovery can be independent of the engine cooling system or coupled with it. In a typical district heating system, jacket cooling, lube oil cooling, single stage aftercooling and exhaust gas heat recovery are all integrated for steam production.

There are over 2, active reciprocating engine combined heat and power CHP installations in the US providing nearly 2. These systems are predominantly spark ignition engines fueled by natural gas and other gaseous fuels biogas, landfill gas. Natural gas is lower in cost than petroleum based fuels and emissions control is generally more effective using gaseous fuels.

Reciprocating engine CHP systems are commonly used in universities, hospitals, water treatment facilities, industrial facilities, and commercial and residential buildings. Facility capacities range from 30 MW to 30 MS, with many larger facilities comprised of multiple units. The simplest thermal load to supply is hot water. A typical commercial application for reciprocating engine CHP is a hospital or health care facility with a 1 MW CHP system comprised of multiple to kW natural gas engine gensets.

Glossary

The system is designed to satisfy the baseload electric needs of the facility. Engine-driven CHP can be used in a variety of industrial applications where hot water or low pressure steam is required for process needs or space heating. A typical industrial application for engine CHP would be a food processing plant with a 2 MW natural gas engine-driven CHP system comprised of multiple to kW engine gensets.

The system provides baseload power to the facility and approximately 2. Designed by Pittsburgh Internet Consulting. Copyright — Energy Solutions Center.

ESC Home Page Other Industrial Sites Gas Air Conditioning. Database Canadian Database News. CHP Technologies This chapter characterizes the prime mover technologies typically used in CHP applications. There are viable CHP opportunities in the commercial sector, but technology and application matching in the commercial sector is more difficult: On average, commercial sites are much smaller than industrial sites.

Technologies for smaller applications have been more expensive and less efficient than larger CHP. Commercial establishments generally operate fewer hours per year and have lower load factors, providing fewer hours of operation per year in which to payback their higher first costs.

Intake stroke — introduction of air diesel or air-fuel mixture spark ignition into the cylinder Compression stroke — compression of air or an air-fuel mixture within the cylinder.

In diesel engines, the fuel is injected at or near the end of the compression stroke top dead center or TDCand ignited by the elevated temperature of the compressed air in the cylinder. In spark ignition engines, the compressed airfuel mixture is ignited by an ignition source at or near TDC Power stroke — acceleration of the piston by the expansion of the hot, high pressure combustion gases Exhaust stroke — expulsion of combustion products from the cylinder through the exhaust port The simplest natural gas engines operate with natural aspiration of air and fuel into the cylinder via a carburetor or other mixer by the suction of the intake stroke.

There are three main configurations for introducing the gaseous and pilot diesel fuel: Low pressure injection with the intake air High pressure injection after the intake air has been compressed by the piston Micropilot pre-chamber introduction of the diesel fuel. ENERGY SOLUTIONS CENTER N.

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